The origin of this web site is a direct result of a report for "Issues in Cross Cultural Management", Spring 2002, written by Daniel Koft. It is hoped that through comments and experiences, it will grow and change.

It cannot be stressed enough that, as with any religion, individual Muslims will vary in their level of adherence to the tenets of Islam. It also must be stated that there are different sects within Islam (principally the Sunni & Shi'a branches) that may have different methods of practicing Islam.

This web site will not concern itself with any current events that may seem to involve Muslims as an entire religion. While media outlets may focus on terrorists who are Muslims as "Islamic terrorists" or "Muslim terrorists" (placing primary emphasis in their religion) it is a terrible disservice to judge all Muslims by those violent few. To do so would be the same as judging all Christians by the Protestant and Catholic terrorists who fought in and around Northern Ireland or the predominately Protestant members of the Klu Klux Klan. Judging all members of any religion by a few violent members of that religion, is a mistake that reflects more poorly on those making this judgment than on those of the religion being so judged. The name "Islam" shares the same root as the word "Salam" which means Peace. The Qur'an (the Holy book of Muslims) enjoins against terrorism, "...take not life, which Allah has made sacred, except by way of justice and law: thus He commands you..." [Al-Qur'an 6:151]

The purpose of this project is to compile behaviors that are generally consistent among Muslims (no matter their country or culture of origin), which may have an impact on a manager's dealings with followers of Islam. For the purposes of project, it will be assumed that the manager is from the United States and is not herself or himself a Muslim. Secondarily to make this information available to non-Muslims from the United States so that they may better understand Muslims and thus avoid problems in their working relations with Muslims. Third, comments, suggestions, and experiences that are relevant to the purposes of this web site are solicited. Please direct all correspondence to koft@eden.rutgers.edu so that this site can be a continuing compendium in information and an evolving resource. Finally, it must be acknowledged that the author is not a Muslim and as such may differ from a similar endeavor undertaken by a Muslim.

This project will not be a comparison of religions nor is it intended to provide cause (or cause not) to hire Muslims. As information later presented will show, Muslims in the United States come from a multitude of countries and cultures. As such, you may safely infer Muslims will display a multitude of behaviors that have more to do with their country of origin than with their religion. An African-American Muslim who grew up in the United States may, in many matters, look at the world and interact with it very differently than would a Muslim who recently emigrated to the United States from Indonesia. In the Hofstede article "Motivation, Leadership, and Organization: Do American Theories Apply Abroad"¹ he compares the peoples of many countries across four measurable dimensions of the dominant cultures of those countries. Of those studied in that article, five (India, Iran, Pakistan, Singapore, and Turkey) have significant Muslim populations. In the four charts sorting the countries by two of the dimensions, the United States was in the same quadrant with any of these five only once. Thus, it is safe to infer that Muslims from different countries (including those born in the United States) are likely to display different ways of behaving that are country/culture caused rather than being caused by their religion.

We will start with a very cursory look at Islam. Next will be a short description of the Muslim population in the United States Next will follow a look at some common practices of Muslims and some possible affects they will have on management practices. Finally will be some proposed practices that may help in understanding those of the Muslim faith.

Followers of Islam are known as Muslims. The term Mohammedan (a follower/worshiper of Mohammed) is inaccurate and offensive to Muslims and should not be used. The word muslin is a type of fabric not a religion, so care should be taken to pronounce Muslim correctly when referring to a person of this religion.

Muslims believe in the same God worshiped by Jews and Christians and revere the prophets mentioned in the Bible's Old and New Testaments (including Moses and Jesus). In addition, Muslims also recognize Muhammad, as the final prophet who has delivered the final and complete version of God's message². Additionally, this author has found no other major religion that explicitly states, in their basic tenets, that all races are equal³

The Islamic calendar year has 12 lunar months and is 354 days long⁴ and thus the dates of Muslim holidays will change relative to dates on the western calendar. Muslim dates are "approximations since they depend upon actual lunar observations"⁵.

The "Five Pillars of Islam"⁶ are as follows:

1. A profession of faith (shahada). All Muslims must proclaim "There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet."
2. Prayer (salat). All Muslims pray five times daily while facing the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia.
3. Alms (zakat). Faith also means outreach. To give thanks and follow the example of Muhammad, Muslims with the economic means must give alms (assistance) to those who are less fortunate.
4. Fasting (sawm or siyam). Muslims who are physically able are to fast from dawn to dusk during Ramadan (the ninth month of the Islamic calendar).
5. A pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca. At least once in their lives, all Muslims who are able must make a pilgrimage to the Great Mosque in the holy city of Mecca.

The United States State Department⁷ cites the following information from various sources about Islam in the United States. By the year 2010, the Muslim population in the United States is expected to surpass the Jewish population⁸. A recent survey indicated that most Muslims are immigrants from a multitude of cultures. This survey⁹ indicated the following demographics 26.2% from the Arab Middle East, 24.7% from South Asia, 23.8% are African Americans, 11.6% other regions of the world, 10.3% from non-Arab Middle East, and 6.4%from East Asia. According to one source "there are six million Muslims living in the United States out of 1.2 billion in the world" 2. Other estimates range from four to eight million¹⁰. The Britannica Book of the Year estimated that, in mid-2000, there were 4,175,000 Muslims in the United States, 1,650,000 of whom are African American in origin. An average of 17,500 African Americans converted to Islam each year between 1990 and 1995.¹¹ The survey previously cited indicated United States Muslim population distribution was as follows 32.2% on the East Coast, 25.3% in the South, 24.3% in the Central/Great Lakes Region, and 18.2% in the West.

It is thus safe to say that, as time progresses managers in the United States will be increasingly likely to have business interactions of some sort with Muslims. Hence, the need for an accurate reference guide to provide information so non-Muslims may comprehend why many people of the Islamic faith may have certain behaviors. Again, it must be stressed that the behaviors described herein are generalizations, each individual Muslim will have their own set of behaviors, some from practicing Islam, some from their nation or culture of origin, and some purely personal behaviors.

First we will look at how the five Pillars may affect management practices, then look into other aspects of Islam that may affect management practices.

The first Pillar (A profession of faith) should have little impact on the normal routine of a workplace, as it is personal to the individual Muslim.

The second Pillar (Prayer) specifies five prayer times a day, of which only the noontime, and afternoon (and possibly sunset prayers) intercept normal US workday (depending on time of year). The precise clock times for prayers will change with the time of year, time zone, and daylight savings time. The reason for this is sunrise, sunset, and when the sun is the highest in sky set the prayer times. There is no need for Muslims to leave a building or to gather for regular prayers, but a quiet location where Muslims may face toward Mecca¹² would be desirable. Part of the preparation for prayer is a ritual cleaning¹³ or "Wodho".

Related to prayers is that Friday is the Islamic day of assembly¹⁴, if sufficient numbers of Muslims (three or more) are present they may wish to congregate and pray at the workplace. If insufficient numbers are present in the workplace to congregate and pray together Muslims may need to go off site to a Mosque to gather for prayers.

The Pillar of Alms should have little influence on most workplaces, other than Muslims might be active in workplace charity drives.

The fourth Pillar (fasting) comes into play during the Islamic month of Ramadan. During Ramadan Muslims are expected to fast ("abstain from all food, drink, tobacco", and other activities) from sunrise to sunset. Muslims are not expected to curtail their other activities during Ramadan¹⁵.

The fifth Pillar specifies that "Muslims who are able must make a pilgrimage to the Great Mosque in the holy city of Mecca" at least once.

Other aspects relating to Muslims (outside of the "Five Pillars") to be aware of include food, the mode of dress (principally for women), interpersonal contact, and social gatherings.

Muslims will have restrictions on what food is "Halal"¹⁶ or acceptable for eating. Halal foods are to Muslims what kosher foods are to Jews, those foods that, by the tenets of their religion, are acceptable . In simple terms, Halal foods do not include pork in any form or the meat of predators.

Muslim women are expected to be modestly dressed in public. This means they should be covered from the neck down to their wrists and ankles¹⁵. Additionally, Muslim women often cover their hair¹⁵ with a scarf called a "Hijab". As with a Jewish man's Yarmulka, the presence of a hijab may indicate some level of devotion, the lack of it should not be construed to mean a lack of devotion. This leaves wide latitude in modes of dress ranging from traditional garb that completely covers a woman to fashionable western dress (that meets the above) that may (or may not) include a head scarf.

Many Muslims do not consider public physical contact between the genders to be proper. In many cases the maximum contact permitted between people who are not of the same gender and are not directly related is a handshake¹⁵. Some may not be comfortable with that much contact, and as such one should not be offended if a Muslim (of the opposite gender) is reluctant to shake your hand (much less have more contact). "The prophet Mohammed was never seen to shake hands with any woman"¹⁵. Additionally some may avoid direct eye contact¹⁷. At work related social events, Muslims may prefer to be segregated by gender, as such mixing is deemed inappropriate.

Again, as with any religion, individuals will differ in their level of adherence (much in the way that two Jews will differ in their adherence to their religious tenets) and yet still be Muslim. Additionally, as with other religions, various sects interpret the Qur'an in different ways (Baptists differ from Catholics in how they worship and both are considered Christians) and yet still be Muslims.

Recommendations

1. When dealing with anyone from a culture (or religion) that is new to you, early in the relationship, open a dialog concerning the differences on how that person may approach situations. Be open about what you do and do not know. Point them at this web site as one of your sources of information. Express a willingness to learn from them and that you expect that they will learn form you.
2. Proselytizing (attempting to convert someone from one faith to another) by anyone of any faith should not be permitted in the workplace, as this practice is a likely source of friction. Larger organizations may have Human Resource policies in place covering this. Check with your particular organization, if none exist, propose that such a policy be developed.
3. Current events may affect relations with those of some other faiths (most recently events in South Asia with Hindus & the Mid-East with Jews). Therefore, managers should be alert to events and signs that they are affecting the workplace to be able to take appropriate steps.
4. Make others (fellow managers and employees) in the workplace aware that Muslims may pray at various times of the day and may prepare for those prayers with a ritual cleaning.
5. Where possible, make a reasonable attempt to be flexible about the timing of meetings (and other events) to avoid the times for prayer¹⁸ when Muslims will be expected to attend the event. Note this is not to say the meeting must always avoid their prayer times, just to make a reasonable attempt to be flexible.
6. Where possible, make a reasonable attempt to accommodate Friday congregations. This may mean extended time to get to a Mosque to congregate or appropriate space for an on site congregation to gather, and may mean flexibility in event scheduling. Again, this is not to say that all other schedules must revolve around Islamic practices, but to avoid difficulties a reasonable attempt to accommodate Muslims should be made.
7. To be considerate, note when Ramadan occurs and during Ramadan, attempt to avoid scheduling events where food will be served when Muslims are expected to attend, so as not to be eating in front of someone who is fasting.
8. Muslims may wish to accrue such personal time as they can, to be used to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. When accumulating personal time is not possible, they eventually may wish to take a leave of absence to make a pilgrimage, and then return to their position afterward. Wherever possible, an attempt should be made to allow this. This is not to say that Muslims should be allowed to go every year, but that they should have the opportunity, at least once, to fulfill part of their faith.
9. At events where food is to be served, a reasonable attempt should be made to accommodate the dietary restrictions (religious, health, or personal) of those attending. When inviting people to such an event, request that they inform you of any dietary restrictions they have.
10. As the Qur'an prohibits alcohol, a Muslim (like some Baptists) may not be comfortable in a setting where drinking alcohol is expected or is the norm. Before arranging an event where liquor is served, make certain that it is an acceptable place for the participants, no matter their religion.
11. So long as a Muslim's chosen mode of dress does not pose a danger, a reasonable attempt should be made to modify existing dress codes sufficiently to allow them to follow the teachings of Islam.
12. A person's preferences regarding their personal space and physical contact should be noted and respected. This should be a given no matter what the circumstances. If differences arise, a non-confrontational and non-judgmental approach should be used to determine what is causing someone a problem, and then to arrive at a compromise.

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¹ Motivation, Leadership, and Organization: Do American Theories Apply Abroad; Geert Hofstede; Organizational Dynamics, Summer 1980.

² Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project – Beginners Introduction
http://www.al-islam.org/search/index.html

³ Al-Qur'an (the Qur'an) 49:13 "O Mankind we created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that you may know each other. Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah (God) is (he who is) the most righteous of you and Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things)."

⁴ Dunn & Bradstreet's Guide to Doing Business Around the World; Morrison, Conaway, and Douress; Prentice Hall Press; ©2001; ISBN 0-7352-0108-0; page 133

⁵ Dunn & Bradstreet's Guide to Doing Business Around the World; Morrison, Conaway, and Douress; Prentice Hall Press; ©2001; ISBN 0-7352-0108-0; page 134

⁶ Islam in America: From African Slaves to Malcolm X: Thomas A. Tweed, University of North Carolina, Chapel, National Humanities Center
http://www.nhc.rtp.nc.us:8080/tserve/twenty/tkeyinfo/islam.htm

⁷ Muslim Life in America - Office of International Information programs, U.S. Department of State
http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/muslimlife

⁸ Carla Power, "The New Islam," Newsweek, March 16, 1998, page 34.

⁹ Zogby International, August 2000, Survey commissioned by the American Muslim Council.

¹⁰ The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs by M.M., May-June 1996, page 13.

¹¹ Encyclopedia Britannica. "Religious Adherents in the United States of America." On Britannica.com:
http://www.britannica.com/.

¹² http://moonsighting.com/qibla.html

¹³ http://www.go.to/emari

¹⁴ Do's and Taboos Around The World, Third Edition; Roger E. Axtell; John Eiley & Sons, Inc.; ©1993; ISBN 0-471-59528-4, page 31

¹⁵ Hamad Ahmad Chebli, Religious Director of the Islamic Society of Central New Jersey, 4145 US Route 1, South Brunswick, NJ

¹⁶ IslamiCity.com - Islam & The Global Muslim eCommunity http://islamicity.com, Q&A "Halal foods" keywords

¹⁷ Mohammed Yusuf Dadani, of the Islamic Information Institute, 520 Ernston Road Sayreville, NJ

¹⁸ http://islamiCity.com/PrayerTimes